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Introduction
Sanātana-dharma has its roots
in revealed scriptures handed down throughout the ages. They are primarily
divided into two major categories of revealed scriptures, namely śruti
and smṛti, or that which is heard and that which is recollected. Other
names for śruti are nigama and Veda, both defined as ‘that
by which knowledge is acquired.’ The Vedas have been classified as Saṁhitās,
Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads. The four Saṁhitās,
namely Ṛg, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva, fully consist of mantras in
various metres. In contrast with the smṛti, the śruti texts are
not connected with an author or compiler. Rather, each mantra in the Saṁhitās
is connected with a ṛṣi, or seer, who sees those eternal mantras,
not with external eyes, but within the heart in the state of samādhi.
The mantras are then uttered by the ṛṣis and heard by others,
which marks the outset of the oral tradition still in the primordial stage of
the universe. It is only at a very later phase in human history that they are
written down.
The
mantra portion of the Vedas is also called brahma, and
thus the texts related to them are called Brāhmaṇas. Each Brāhmaṇa
pertains to one of the Saṁhitās and deals mostly with the interpretation
of the mantras, as well as injunctions (vidhi) and explanations on the
performances of rituals. These are usually extensive texts written in prose and
cover various observances particularly meant for householders. Together with
the Saṁhitās, they comprise the karma-kāṇḍa, or ritualistic
section of the Vedas. The Āraṇyakas are texts meant to be studied
in the forest (araṇya) by those other than householders. They deal with a
different set of rituals, as well as vows, worship, and meditation. Each Āraṇyaka
pertains to one of the Brāhmaṇas and comprises the upāsanā-kāṇḍa,
or the Vedic section on worship. The Upaniṣads are texts on philosophy
and comprise the jñāna-kāṇḍa, or the higher knowledge section of the Vedas.
The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad (1.1.5) indicates that the knowledge offered by the
Saṁhitās and their ancillary texts is relatively of a lower order:
tatrāparā ṛgvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo’tharvavedaḥ, śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṁ
niruktaṁ chando jyotiṣam iti, atha parā yayā tad akṣaram adhigamyate, “The Ṛg-veda,
Yajur-veda, Sāma-veda, and Atharva-veda, as well as vyākaraṇa
(grammar), jyotiṣa (astronomy), śikṣā (phonetics), chandaḥ
(prosody), nirukta (etymology) and kalpa (rituals)— all these
comprise lower knowledge (aparā-vidyā). Superior knowledge (parā-vidyā) is that
by which one attains the Supreme Lord.” Such knowledge is presented by the Upaniṣads.
Each Upaniṣad is said to have been originally part of an Āraṇyaka, but
most of these became lost over the centuries, as fewer and fewer
individuals felt attracted to live in the forest observing the prescribed
rituals and vows. Some Upaniṣads, such as Īśa, consist of mantras
from the Saṁhitās, while others also include prose text. Another name
for the Upaniṣads is ‘Vedānta,’ as they are classified as the last
portion (anta) or acme of the Vedas and present the philosophical
conclusion (anta) of the Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, and Āraṇyakas.
Vedānta is also known as Uttara-mīmāṁsā, ‘reflection on the subsequent section
(jñāna-kāṇḍa) of the Vedas,’ as opposed to Pūrva-mīmāṁsā,
‘reflection on the first portion (karma-kāṇḍa) of the Vedas.’ As
the focus of the karma-kāṇḍa is dharma, artha, and kāma,
Jaimini’s Mīmāṁsā-sūtra starts with an inquiry into dharma and
delves into the exegesis and application of mantras centred on
sacrificial rituals, whose purpose is to bring about artha and kāma
in this life and the next. On the other hand, the focus of the jñāna-kāṇḍa
is mokṣa, and hence Bādarāyaṇa’s Vedānta-sūtra starts with an
inquiry into Brahman and culminates in a whole chapter on liberation.
The
word ‘upaniṣad’ is etymologically defined in various ways: that by which
spiritual knowledge is obtained (upaniṣadyate); that which destroys
(upaniṣādayati) the cycle of birth and death; that within which ultimate
liberation lies (upaniṣaṇṇa); that which brings (upagamayati) one to the
Supreme, etc. A more popular definition is that these texts are heard and
learnt by sitting (niṣaṇṇa) close (upa) to a preceptor. The total number of the
original Upaniṣads is uncertain. Vedic branches (śākhā) are responsible
for the preservation and transmission of a particular set of texts, rituals,
and various customs, and each branch was named after the sage who originally
received those texts. According to the Muktikā Upaniṣad, in ancient
times there were 1180 such branches, out of which only a few still exist, and
the number of Upaniṣads was proportionate to the number of Vedic
branches. The Muktikā Upaniṣad also mentions one hundred and eight Upaniṣads,
which are presented as the prominent ones. More than two hundred Upaniṣads
have been published thus far, some of which might be unauthentic. Ancient
commentators occasionally quoted from Upaniṣads that appear to have
vanished long, but still today there are manuscripts of unpublished Upaniṣads
seen in various places waiting to be duly investigated.
Each
Upaniṣad is connected with a particular Saṁhitā and Vedic branch.
The Muktikā Upaniṣad lists thirty-one Upaniṣads that pertain to
the Atharva-saṁhitā, among which the best known are Muṇḍaka,
Māṇḍūkya, Praśna, Mahā-nārāyaṇa, Nṛsiṁha-tāpanī, and Gopāla-tāpanī.
The Muktikā Upaniṣad also states that the Atharva tradition
comprises fifty branches. In the introduction to his commentary on the Atharva-veda,
Sāyaṇa (14th century CE) names nine branches: Paippalāda, Tauda,
Mauda, Śaunakīya, Jājala, Jalada, Brahmavada, Devadarśa, and Cāraṇavaidya. Of
these, only two exist today, namely the Pippalāda branch and the Śaunaka
branch.
True
to the aforementioned etymology, all Upaniṣads are intrinsically
esoteric texts that abound in symbolism, metaphors, technical terminology, and
obscure passages that can be correctly apprehended when learnt from someone who
belongs to the tradition behind those texts and who is thoroughly conversant
with the intricacies handed down through that tradition. Texts such as the
Tripurā Upaniṣad, for instance, are totally written in symbolic
language that will appear abstruse to the uninitiated relying on mere
dictionary word meanings. Many of the Upaniṣads are thus grouped as
respectively belonging to one of the three major āgamic traditions,
namely Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, and Śākta, depending on whether they propound a system
of thought congenial to each of these schools. Besides these, there are four
other categories of Upaniṣads. The ten main (mukhya) Upaniṣads,
starting with Īśa, are the most commented upon and quoted from, being
equally respected by scholars of all denominations. The Sāmānya-vedānta
Upaniṣads are generic philosophical texts of comparatively secondary
importance and are not so often referred to by commentators. The Sannyāsa
Upaniṣads are meant for those in the renounced order and discuss detachment
from the world through reflection on the spiritual nature of the self. The Yoga
Upaniṣads deal with the various limbs of the yogic practice leading
to samādhi.
The
tāpanī, also written tāpinī or tāpanīya, is a sub-category
of particularly mystical Upaniṣads. This name has also been interpreted
in several ways. As a noun, tāpana means ‘the sun’, ‘austerity,’ and
‘gold,’ and as an adjective, it means ‘illuminating.’ The meaning is that such Upaniṣads
shed light on their respective deities just as the sun illuminates the world.
Or, they teach austerity in the form of meditation on those deities. For these
two reasons, they are bright and valuable like gold. At the moment, the
following texts are known to exist: Gopāla-tāpanī, Nṛsiṁha-tāpanī,
Rāma-tāpanī, Tripurā-tāpanī, Nārāyaṇa-tāpanī, Rādhikā-tāpanī, Sūrya-tāpanī,
and Gaṇeṣa-tāpanī (also called Varada-tāpanī). These last
four are not featured in any ancient list and do not seem to have been quoted
in major old commentaries. All eight share common characteristics, such as the
description of the worship and the mantra of their respective deities.
Text Tradition
The
Gopāla-tāpanī belongs to the Pippalāda-śākhā, which was once
prominent among all Atharva branches. According to some commentators,[1]
it flourished in states such as Gujarat. Incidentally, most of the manuscripts
of the text are found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and
Bengal, and the known commentators seem to have been based mostly in those
areas. Only very few copies are found in the southern states, which
corroborates a strong tradition of the text in the north, in contrast to its
oblivion in the south. Among the tāpanī texts, the Gopāla-tāpanī is
the most commented and the most published, and its importance keeps growing
stronger over time.
Since
the Pippalāda branch was mostly scattered in North India, it should not be a
surprise that some of its texts were scarcely circulated in the south, which in
part explains why ancient commentators such as Śaṅkarācārya, Rāmānujācārya, or
Madhvācārya did not quote from the Gopāla-tāpanī. Its mere omission in
their works certainly does not preclude the authenticity and antiquity of the
text, for there is plenty of evidence of these elsewhere. In fact, the
Gopāla-tāpanī has been revered by Nimbārkīs, Puṣṭimārgīyas, Gauḍīyas,
Advaitavādīs, and others for many centuries.
In
his Vedānta-kaustubha on the first aphorism of the Brahma-sūtra,
Śrīnivāsācārya, a direct disciple of Nimbārkācārya,[2]
quoted the text ‘tasmāt kṛṣṇa eva paro devaḥ’(1.54). He also quoted from
the Gopāla-tāpanī in several subsequent purports. In the Vedānta-ratna-mañjūṣā
(koṣṭha 1 and 3), Puruṣottamācārya, a grand-disciple of
Śrīnivāsācārya, quoted ‘sa hovāca taṁ ha vai pūrvaṁ hy ekam
evādvitīyam’(2.65) and ‘yathā tvaṁ saha putraiḥ’(2.63). In his
commentary on Nimbārkācārya’s Mantra-rahasya-ṣoḍaśī (5), Sundara Bhaṭṭa[3]
quoted ‘klīm-oṁkārayor ekatvaṁ paṭhyate’(2.73). Some believe that he
also wrote a commentary on the Gopāla-tāpanī, which is now lost.[4]
In his Kaustubha-prabhā on the first aphorism of the Brahma-sūtra,
Keśava Kāśmīrī Bhaṭṭa[5]
quoted the text ‘śrī-kṛṣṇa rukmiṇī-kānta’ (1.49), and so on. Raṇachoṛa-śaraṇa Devācārya
(c. 17th century CE), a disciple of Svabhūrāma Devācārya, wrote a vyākhyā
named Tattva-prakāśikā, which might be the earliest available Nimbarkī
commentary.
In
his commentary on the Brahma-sūtra (3.3.3), Vallabhācārya (1479-1531 CE)
quoted ‘sa hovācābja-yonir avatārāṇāṁ madhye’(2.33). There are many
other instances in this and other of his and Viṭṭhalanātha’s works. Apparently,
the only available Puṣṭimārga Sanskrit commentary is that by Aniruddhācārya,
written over a hundred years ago. Yet in the front matter of the published
edition, it is stated that Yogī Gopeśvara (1780-1830 CE), another descendant of
the same family, also commented on the Gopāla-tāpanī. It is unclear
whether the manuscript has been lost or just remains unpublished.
For
several centuries, monist scholars have not only quoted the Gopāla-tāpanī
in their works but also wrote commentaries on it. The oldest extant one is by
Viśveśvara Bhaṭṭa, which was referred to by several subsequent commentators.
Although his affiliation and dates are uncertain, he was clearly an adept of
non-dualism, possibly from the 14th century CE. Another monist named
Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa, a disciple of Rāmendra Sarasvatī, also penned a commentary of
unknown date. The best-known Advaita commentary is that by Rāmacandrendra
Sarasvatī (18th century CE), alias Upaniṣad Brahmayogī, a sannyāsī
who belonged to Śaṅkara’s line and was based in Kāncīpuram. In that same line,
Ayyaṇṇa Dīkṣita (18th century CE), in his Vyāsa-tātparya-nirṇaya (end
of the second pariccheda), quoted a long passage starting with ‘sat-puṇḍarīka-nayanam’(1.10).
There is also a commentary by Appaya Dīkṣitācārya,[6]
whose date is unknown. The above references are just a few among countless
works in which the Gopāla-tāpanī was quoted in earlier centuries. There
may be several ancient commentaries from various schools that are now lost.
Among
the Gauḍīyas, the Gopāla-tāpanī is the only śruti commented upon
and extensively quoted in the works of the earlier followers of Caitanya
Mahāprabhu. A conspicuous distinction that sets the Gauḍīyas apart from other
religious lineages, Vaiṣṇavas or otherwise, is their disinterest in reciting
the Saṁhitās and studying the main Upaniṣads. This apparent
disconnection from the Vedas is both compensated and justified by the Gopāla-tāpanī
itself and the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, which is the mature fruit of the
desire tree like Vedic scriptures. The first Gauḍīya commentary is the one
attributed to Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī (15th-16th century
CE), followed by one attributed to Jīva Gosvāmī (c. 1513-1608 CE). Oddly
enough, there is very little difference between both commentaries, which raises
questions that may be answered only after a thorough investigation of the
available manuscripts. The next commentary was written by Viśvanātha Cakravartī
(17th-18th century CE), followed by one by Baladeva
Vidyābhūṣaṇa (c. 1700-1793 CE).
Mantra
One
of the central topics in the Gopāla-tāpanī is the eighteen-syllable
Gopāla-mantra, which is defined as the sound form of Gopāla Himself, thus
holding the same transcendental nature and potencies. Its japa enables
the practitioner to attain anything and everything (1.19).[7]
The component words of the mantra are given in the Gopāla-tāpanī
not in a thoroughly explicit way, but rather in a slightly veiled way, as
characteristic of esoteric texts. This is an indication that the readers should
not feel tempted to bypass tradition by directly adopting the mantra
from a book instead of hearing it from a preceptor pertaining to a legitimate
disciplic succession. Even in this case, the mantra’s secrecy is
maintained by not chanting it loudly, given its esoteric nature and great
potency. As described here, it was through the syllables of this mantra
that Brahmā created the whole universe (1.30). Yet the highest achievement it
yields is nothing mundane but Gopāla Himself (1.12).
The
Gopāla-mantra directly connects the Gauḍīyas to the Mādhva-sampradāya, and
indirectly to other Vaiṣṇava-sampradāyas as well. The same mantra and
instructions received by Brahmā are corroborated in the Gopāla-tāpanī
Upaniṣad and Brahma-saṁhitā. In the Mahā-bhārata-tātparya-nirṇaya
(32.27), Madhvācārya states: gopāla-mantraṁ bhajatāṁ phala-prada ekena
rūpeṇa bhuvy adṛśyaḥ, “Although invisible, Lord Kṛṣṇa manifests His form in
this world to those who worship Him with the Gopāla-mantra, for He rewards them
accordingly.” In the Tantra-sāra-saṅgraha (4.39), he further asserts
the same Kṛṣṇa-mantra composed of eighteen syllables: kṛṣṇo govic ca kāmetaḥ
soddeśo ballavī-janaḥ, priyaś ca tādṛśaḥ svāhā-yukto’ṣṭādaśa-varṇakaḥ, padair
aṅgāni samprīti-kāma-mokṣa-prado manuḥ, “The eighteen-syllable mantra
consists of the word ‘kṛṣṇa’ together with the Kāma-bīja[8]
and the words ‘govinda,’ ‘svāhā,’ and the synonym of ‘ballavī-jana-vallabha.’
Nyāsa is to be done on the bodily limbs by uttering these same words. This
mantra fulfils all desires and gives love of God and liberation.” The
present Mādhvas in Udupi can confirm that this is one of the mantras
received in their disciplic succession. The same mantra imparted by Lord
Kṛṣṇa to Brahmā has come down to the Gauḍīyas via the Mādhva-paramparā, and it
is clear from the above verse that Madhvācārya himself propounded that
Kṛṣṇa-prema is the goal to be attained by chanting it.
One
of the reasons the Nimbārkīs have great esteem for the Gopāla-tāpanī is
that the same Gopāla-mantra is the prominent mantra in their sampradāya,
having been transmitted by the Supreme Lord in the form of Haṁsa to the four
Kumāra sages, who passed it on to Nārada Muni, who later initiated
Nimbārkācārya. Indeed, Nimbārkīs closely follow the text by performing kara-nyāsa,
aṅga-nyāsa, and by observing other details mentioned there. This mantra
embodies their mode of worship, according to which the Supreme Lord’s form as a
cowherd boy in Vraja is paramount, Śrī Rādhā is the Supreme Goddess, and the
loving service rendered by the gopīs is the highest. Dedicated sādhakas
are known to spend several hours a day doing Gopāla-mantra japa.
Similarly,
the Gopāla-mantra also occupies a distinct place in the Viṣṇu-svāmi-sampradāya,
with the exception that it is not given to the general public. Rather, only the
ācārya of the sampradāya chants this mantra and imparts it
only to the person who will succeed him in that post. From the perspective that
the Puṣṭimārga is a branch of that sampradāya, as held by present-day
Viṣṇu-svāmi-sampradāya members, this explains why Puṣṭimārga followers do not
chant the Gopāla-mantra, unlike the abovementioned Vaiṣṇavas, although their
worshipable Deity is also Gopāla.
Furthermore,
the Kāma-bīja (the syllable klīm) is not only an essential component in
Vaiṣṇava mantras but is also present in the worship of various deities
in other āgāmic traditions, as well as in Buddhist and Jain practices.
Theology
Like
other Vedic scriptures, the Gopāla-tāpanī starts with inquiries about
the identity of the Supreme and gradually unfolds His nature, names, and
qualities. Whatever is taught in a vague and indirect way in other Upaniṣads
is here described in a straightforward and unambiguous way: Lord Kṛṣṇa is the
Supreme Personality of Godhead (1.3, 2.51), the cause of all causes (2.22), and
the sources of all avatāras (2.55), and loving devotional service to Him
is the highest achievement of human life (1.13). Such devotional service is not
only pursued in this lifetime but in the next too (1.14). He is the ultimate
object of knowledge to be known through all Upaniṣads (1.1). This
corroborates Vaiṣṇava realism, according to which God, the individual soul, and
the scriptures are all absolutely real and eternal. The knowability of God by
the jīvas is also factual and feasible, contrary to the belief that He
cannot be described by words at all. Gopāla is the referent of the words of the
Vedas, is expressed by the praṇava, and is the praṇava
personified (2.66). His Deity in this world is non-different from Him and
should be worshipped by all means. His svarūpa-śakti shares His same
transcendental nature and is His personified energy (2.70-71). Such God
realisation is attained by hearing the Vedic scriptures from Vaiṣṇavācāryas
through a paramparā. Since Gopāla Himself is the Supreme Absolute Truth,
knowledge of His svarūpa is the culmination of knowledge, which is
searched for through upaniṣadic inquiries such as: kasmin nu bhagavo
vijñāte sarvam idaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, 1.1.3), “O
revered sage, what is that which upon being known, everything that exists is
known?”
The
Supreme Lord’s form and nature, as well as His relationship with His devotees,
are further confirmed by the etymological definition of His names given here:
He is named ‘Govinda’ because He is well-known (viditaḥ) among the cows, in all planets, and in all Vedas
(1.5), and He is named Gopāla because He accepts (ālāti) the gopas,
those who drink (pibanti) His beverage-like beauty (go) with their eyes and
tongues (2.50). At the time of the universal creation, Brahmā was born from
Gopāla (1.23, 2.29), Who later also appeared to Him in that same form as a
cowherd boy (1.28).
Liberation
is characterised by pure devotional service (1.14) and the attainment of
Gopāla’s abode, which is of the same transcendental nature as Him (1.36-37,
52-53). The means to reach that abode is devotional service itself: meditation
on His form and the Gopāla-mantra (1.6, 1.10). Mathurā is the Lord’s Own city,
non-different from that in the spiritual world, and it rewards liberation to
those who worship Him there (2.74). An apparent non-dualist section of the text
(2.49-52) dedicated to meditation on the identity of oneself with Gopāla is
reconciled by Śrī Vidyābhūṣaṇa as meant for those in the neophyte stage, which
means those who are unable to fathom His ontological position as the Supreme
Lord in comparison with that of the atomic individual soul. The principle is
that a meditator acquires the qualities of the object of meditation and anyone
becomes purified by the mere remembrance of Gopāla (2.7).
In
the beginning of his commentary, Śrī Vidyābhūṣaṇa establishes that one free
from material desires is a person qualified (adhikārī) to study the
Gopāla-tāpanī; Lord Kṛṣṇa is its topic (viṣaya); the relationship between
the referent and the words describing it is the connection (sambandha); and to
attain Kṛṣṇa is the purpose (prayojana).
Commentary
Gauḍīya-vedāntācārya
Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa took upon himself the task of commenting on key Vaiṣṇava
works such as this one. Following his usual methodology, he consulted multiple
commentaries while compiling his own. Although Viśveśvara Bhaṭṭa is the only
name directly mentioned by him (1.31), Vidyābhūṣaṇa often paraphrases the words
of Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī, Jīva Gosvāmī, and Raṇachoṛa-śaraṇa Devācārya, a
Nimbarkī scholar (c. 17th century CE). It is not clear whether he
had access to a copy of the commentary written by Viśvanātha Cakravartī, whose
interpretations are substantially different, but he was most likely aware of
it. It is also possible that he referred to other commentaries that may not be
available today. Curiously, a manuscript of Jīva Gosvāmī’s Gopāla-tāpanī
commentary preserved at the Vrindavan Research Institute, accession number
7698, has some notes written by Dayānidhi, who served as Vidyābhūṣaṇa’s scribe,
which indicates that it must have been utilised by the latter. Even when
borrowing the gist from other authors, Vidyābhūṣaṇa’s commentary is
interspersed with his own input. Characteristically, his comments on both
sections of the text start with some of his signature invocation verses.
The
Gopāla-tāpanī has its fair share of alternative readings, and as is the
case with his other works, Vidyābhūṣaṇa was very particular about the readings
he chose as well as the numbers of each text or paragraph. Although undated, a
few references to the Siddhānta-ratnam indicate that this commentary was
composed after his major Vedānta works had already been written, possibly
between 1760 and 1780 CE. The number of extant manuscript copies and their
locations are consistent with that of his other texts. On the other hand, not a
single page of any other Upaniṣad-bhāṣya manuscript has been yet found,
despite over a decade of extensive field search and contrary to the
long-standing belief that Vidyābhūṣaṇa commented on the ten major Upaniṣads.
In several of his commentaries, as well as in those by his associates such as
Vedāntavāgīśa and Vṛndāvana Tarkālaṅkāra, references to the Govinda-bhāṣya,
Siddhānta-ratnam, and other works are common, but there was never any
allusion to a Daśopaniṣad-bhāṣya or even to one out of ten. This is odd,
as such a commentary would have certainly been one of his most important
contributions and sufficient copies of it would have been made as with most of
his works. Nothing is conclusive yet, but many questions on the matter remain
unanswered.
[1] The same thing is stated in the commentaries attributed to
Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī, Jīva Gosvāmī, and Viśvanātha Cakravartī.
[2] His dates are controversial. While orthodox followers defend the
view that Nimbārkācārya appeared over 5,000 years ago, others believe that he
lived within a century or so before Śaṅkarācārya (8th century CE).
[3] He was the thirteenth successor of Nimbārkācārya. Unknown date.
[4] See Bhagīratha Jhā’s introduction to his own commentary on the
Gopāla-tāpanī.
[5] He was the nineteenth successor of Nimbārkācārya. His dates are
also disputed, propositions varying between the 12th and 14th
century CE. He is the renowned author of Krama-dīpikā, whose verses and
commentaries were quoted in the Hari-bhakti-vilāsa.
[6] Not to be mistaken for the famous 16th-century Advaita
scholar. I wished to consult the manuscript of this text, but my queries to the
Adyar Library remain unanswered.
[7] Unless otherwise specified, the references are to the first and
second sections of the Gopāla-tāpanī. Only one or two instances are
given, but more of them are found throughout the text on most topics discussed
here.
[8] A bīja-mantra or seed mantra is a single syllable
connected to the mantras of a particular deity. It encapsulates the
essence of a multi-word mantra and is the sound form of its deity. The bīja-mantra
of Lord Kṛṣṇa is named “Kāma-bīja,” for it is itself the desired object (kāma)
and satisfies all desires (kāma).
