Saturday, August 10, 2024

Gopala-tapani Release

 

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Introduction

          Sanātana-dharma has its roots in revealed scriptures handed down throughout the ages. They are primarily divided into two major categories of revealed scriptures, namely śruti and smṛti, or that which is heard and that which is recollected. Other names for śruti are nigama and Veda, both defined as ‘that by which knowledge is acquired.’ The Vedas have been classified as Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, Āraṇyakas, and Upaniṣads. The four Saṁhitās, namely Ṛg, Yajur, Sāma, and Atharva, fully consist of mantras in various metres. In contrast with the smṛti, the śruti texts are not connected with an author or compiler. Rather, each mantra in the Saṁhitās is connected with a ṛṣi, or seer, who sees those eternal mantras, not with external eyes, but within the heart in the state of samādhi. The mantras are then uttered by the ṛṣis and heard by others, which marks the outset of the oral tradition still in the primordial stage of the universe. It is only at a very later phase in human history that they are written down.

          The mantra portion of the Vedas is also called brahma, and thus the texts related to them are called Brāhmaṇas. Each Brāhmaṇa pertains to one of the Saṁhitās and deals mostly with the interpretation of the mantras, as well as injunctions (vidhi) and explanations on the performances of rituals. These are usually extensive texts written in prose and cover various observances particularly meant for householders. Together with the Saṁhitās, they comprise the karma-kāṇḍa, or ritualistic section of the Vedas. The Āraṇyakas are texts meant to be studied in the forest (araṇya) by those other than householders. They deal with a different set of rituals, as well as vows, worship, and meditation. Each Āraṇyaka pertains to one of the Brāhmaṇas and comprises the upāsanā-kāṇḍa, or the Vedic section on worship. The Upaniṣads are texts on philosophy and comprise the jñāna-kāṇḍa, or the higher knowledge section of the Vedas. The Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad (1.1.5) indicates that the knowledge offered by the Saṁhitās and their ancillary texts is relatively of a lower order: tatrāparā ṛgvedo yajurvedaḥ sāmavedo’tharvavedaḥ, śikṣā kalpo vyākaraṇaṁ niruktaṁ chando jyotiṣam iti, atha parā yayā tad akṣaram adhigamyate, “The Ṛg-veda, Yajur-veda, Sāma-veda, and Atharva-veda, as well as vyākaraṇa (grammar), jyotiṣa (astronomy), śikṣā (phonetics), chandaḥ (prosody), nirukta (etymology) and kalpa (rituals)— all these comprise lower knowledge (aparā-vidyā). Superior knowledge (parā-vidyā) is that by which one attains the Supreme Lord.” Such knowledge is presented by the Upaniṣads. Each Upaniṣad is said to have been originally part of an Āraṇyaka, but most of these became lost over the centuries, as fewer and fewer individuals felt attracted to live in the forest observing the prescribed rituals and vows. Some Upaniṣads, such as Īśa, consist of mantras from the Saṁhitās, while others also include prose text. Another name for the Upaniṣads is ‘Vedānta,’ as they are classified as the last portion (anta) or acme of the Vedas and present the philosophical conclusion (anta) of the Saṁhitās, Brāhmaṇas, and Āraṇyakas. Vedānta is also known as Uttara-mīmāṁsā, ‘reflection on the subsequent section (jñāna-kāṇḍa) of the Vedas,’ as opposed to Pūrva-mīmāṁsā, ‘reflection on the first portion (karma-kāṇḍa) of the Vedas.’ As the focus of the karma-kāṇḍa is dharma, artha, and kāma, Jaimini’s Mīmāṁsā-sūtra starts with an inquiry into dharma and delves into the exegesis and application of mantras centred on sacrificial rituals, whose purpose is to bring about artha and kāma in this life and the next. On the other hand, the focus of the jñāna-kāṇḍa is mokṣa, and hence Bādarāyaṇa’s Vedānta-sūtra starts with an inquiry into Brahman and culminates in a whole chapter on liberation.

          The word ‘upaniṣad’ is etymologically defined in various ways: that by which spiritual knowledge is obtained (upaniṣadyate); that which destroys (upaniṣādayati) the cycle of birth and death; that within which ultimate liberation lies (upaniṣaṇṇa); that which brings (upagamayati) one to the Supreme, etc. A more popular definition is that these texts are heard and learnt by sitting (niṣaṇṇa) close (upa) to a preceptor. The total number of the original Upaniṣads is uncertain. Vedic branches (śākhā) are responsible for the preservation and transmission of a particular set of texts, rituals, and various customs, and each branch was named after the sage who originally received those texts. According to the Muktikā Upaniṣad, in ancient times there were 1180 such branches, out of which only a few still exist, and the number of Upaniṣads was proportionate to the number of Vedic branches. The Muktikā Upaniṣad also mentions one hundred and eight Upaniṣads, which are presented as the prominent ones. More than two hundred Upaniṣads have been published thus far, some of which might be unauthentic. Ancient commentators occasionally quoted from Upaniṣads that appear to have vanished long, but still today there are manuscripts of unpublished Upaniṣads seen in various places waiting to be duly investigated. 

          Each Upaniṣad is connected with a particular Saṁhitā and Vedic branch. The Muktikā Upaniṣad lists thirty-one Upaniṣads that pertain to the Atharva-saṁhitā, among which the best known are Muṇḍaka, Māṇḍūkya, Praśna, Mahā-nārāyaṇa, Nṛsiṁha-tāpanī, and Gopāla-tāpanī. The Muktikā Upaniṣad also states that the Atharva tradition comprises fifty branches. In the introduction to his commentary on the Atharva-veda, Sāyaṇa (14th century CE) names nine branches: Paippalāda, Tauda, Mauda, Śaunakīya, Jājala, Jalada, Brahmavada, Devadarśa, and Cāraṇavaidya. Of these, only two exist today, namely the Pippalāda branch and the Śaunaka branch.

          True to the aforementioned etymology, all Upaniṣads are intrinsically esoteric texts that abound in symbolism, metaphors, technical terminology, and obscure passages that can be correctly apprehended when learnt from someone who belongs to the tradition behind those texts and who is thoroughly conversant with the intricacies handed down through that tradition. Texts such as the Tripurā Upaniṣad, for instance, are totally written in symbolic language that will appear abstruse to the uninitiated relying on mere dictionary word meanings. Many of the Upaniṣads are thus grouped as respectively belonging to one of the three major āgamic traditions, namely Vaiṣṇava, Śaiva, and Śākta, depending on whether they propound a system of thought congenial to each of these schools. Besides these, there are four other categories of Upaniṣads. The ten main (mukhya) Upaniṣads, starting with Īśa, are the most commented upon and quoted from, being equally respected by scholars of all denominations. The Sāmānya-vedānta Upaniṣads are generic philosophical texts of comparatively secondary importance and are not so often referred to by commentators. The Sannyāsa Upaniṣads are meant for those in the renounced order and discuss detachment from the world through reflection on the spiritual nature of the self. The Yoga Upaniṣads deal with the various limbs of the yogic practice leading to samādhi.

          The tāpanī, also written tāpinī or tāpanīya, is a sub-category of particularly mystical Upaniṣads. This name has also been interpreted in several ways. As a noun, tāpana means ‘the sun’, ‘austerity,’ and ‘gold,’ and as an adjective, it means ‘illuminating.’ The meaning is that such Upaniṣads shed light on their respective deities just as the sun illuminates the world. Or, they teach austerity in the form of meditation on those deities. For these two reasons, they are bright and valuable like gold. At the moment, the following texts are known to exist: Gopāla-tāpanī, Nṛsiṁha-tāpanī, Rāma-tāpanī, Tripurā-tāpanī, Nārāyaṇa-tāpanī, Rādhikā-tāpanī, Sūrya-tāpanī, and Gaṇeṣa-tāpanī (also called Varada-tāpanī). These last four are not featured in any ancient list and do not seem to have been quoted in major old commentaries. All eight share common characteristics, such as the description of the worship and the mantra of their respective deities.

Text Tradition

          The Gopāla-tāpanī belongs to the Pippalāda-śākhā, which was once prominent among all Atharva branches. According to some commentators,[1] it flourished in states such as Gujarat. Incidentally, most of the manuscripts of the text are found in Maharashtra, Gujarat, Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, and Bengal, and the known commentators seem to have been based mostly in those areas. Only very few copies are found in the southern states, which corroborates a strong tradition of the text in the north, in contrast to its oblivion in the south. Among the tāpanī texts, the Gopāla-tāpanī is the most commented and the most published, and its importance keeps growing stronger over time.

          Since the Pippalāda branch was mostly scattered in North India, it should not be a surprise that some of its texts were scarcely circulated in the south, which in part explains why ancient commentators such as Śaṅkarācārya, Rāmānujācārya, or Madhvācārya did not quote from the Gopāla-tāpanī. Its mere omission in their works certainly does not preclude the authenticity and antiquity of the text, for there is plenty of evidence of these elsewhere. In fact, the Gopāla-tāpanī has been revered by Nimbārkīs, Puṣṭimārgīyas, Gauḍīyas, Advaitavādīs, and others for many centuries. 

          In his Vedānta-kaustubha on the first aphorism of the Brahma-sūtra, Śrīnivāsācārya, a direct disciple of Nimbārkācārya,[2] quoted the text ‘tasmāt kṛṣṇa eva paro devaḥ’(1.54). He also quoted from the Gopāla-tāpanī in several subsequent purports. In the Vedānta-ratna-mañjūṣā (koṣṭha 1 and 3), Puruṣottamācārya, a grand-disciple of Śrīnivāsācārya, quoted ‘sa hovāca taṁ ha vai pūrvaṁ hy ekam evādvitīyam’(2.65) and ‘yathā tvaṁ saha putraiḥ’(2.63). In his commentary on Nimbārkācārya’s Mantra-rahasya-ṣoḍaśī (5), Sundara Bhaṭṭa[3] quoted ‘klīm-oṁkārayor ekatvaṁ paṭhyate’(2.73). Some believe that he also wrote a commentary on the Gopāla-tāpanī, which is now lost.[4] In his Kaustubha-prabhā on the first aphorism of the Brahma-sūtra, Keśava Kāśmīrī Bhaṭṭa[5] quoted the text ‘śrī-kṛṣṇa rukmiṇī-kānta’ (1.49), and so on. Raṇachoṛa-śaraṇa Devācārya (c. 17th century CE), a disciple of Svabhūrāma Devācārya, wrote a vyākhyā named Tattva-prakāśikā, which might be the earliest available Nimbarkī commentary.

          In his commentary on the Brahma-sūtra (3.3.3), Vallabhācārya (1479-1531 CE) quoted ‘sa hovācābja-yonir avatārāṇāṁ madhye’(2.33). There are many other instances in this and other of his and Viṭṭhalanātha’s works. Apparently, the only available Puṣṭimārga Sanskrit commentary is that by Aniruddhācārya, written over a hundred years ago. Yet in the front matter of the published edition, it is stated that Yogī Gopeśvara (1780-1830 CE), another descendant of the same family, also commented on the Gopāla-tāpanī. It is unclear whether the manuscript has been lost or just remains unpublished.

          For several centuries, monist scholars have not only quoted the Gopāla-tāpanī in their works but also wrote commentaries on it. The oldest extant one is by Viśveśvara Bhaṭṭa, which was referred to by several subsequent commentators. Although his affiliation and dates are uncertain, he was clearly an adept of non-dualism, possibly from the 14th century CE. Another monist named Nārāyaṇa Bhaṭṭa, a disciple of Rāmendra Sarasvatī, also penned a commentary of unknown date. The best-known Advaita commentary is that by Rāmacandrendra Sarasvatī (18th century CE), alias Upaniṣad Brahmayogī, a sannyāsī who belonged to Śaṅkara’s line and was based in Kāncīpuram. In that same line, Ayyaṇṇa Dīkṣita (18th century CE), in his Vyāsa-tātparya-nirṇaya (end of the second pariccheda), quoted a long passage starting with ‘sat-puṇḍarīka-nayanam’(1.10). There is also a commentary by Appaya Dīkṣitācārya,[6] whose date is unknown. The above references are just a few among countless works in which the Gopāla-tāpanī was quoted in earlier centuries. There may be several ancient commentaries from various schools that are now lost.

          Among the Gauḍīyas, the Gopāla-tāpanī is the only śruti commented upon and extensively quoted in the works of the earlier followers of Caitanya Mahāprabhu. A conspicuous distinction that sets the Gauḍīyas apart from other religious lineages, Vaiṣṇavas or otherwise, is their disinterest in reciting the Saṁhitās and studying the main Upaniṣads. This apparent disconnection from the Vedas is both compensated and justified by the Gopāla-tāpanī itself and the Śrīmad-Bhāgavatam, which is the mature fruit of the desire tree like Vedic scriptures. The first Gauḍīya commentary is the one attributed to Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī (15th-16th century CE), followed by one attributed to Jīva Gosvāmī (c. 1513-1608 CE). Oddly enough, there is very little difference between both commentaries, which raises questions that may be answered only after a thorough investigation of the available manuscripts. The next commentary was written by Viśvanātha Cakravartī (17th-18th century CE), followed by one by Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa (c. 1700-1793 CE).

Mantra

          One of the central topics in the Gopāla-tāpanī is the eighteen-syllable Gopāla-mantra, which is defined as the sound form of Gopāla Himself, thus holding the same transcendental nature and potencies. Its japa enables the practitioner to attain anything and everything (1.19).[7] The component words of the mantra are given in the Gopāla-tāpanī not in a thoroughly explicit way, but rather in a slightly veiled way, as characteristic of esoteric texts. This is an indication that the readers should not feel tempted to bypass tradition by directly adopting the mantra from a book instead of hearing it from a preceptor pertaining to a legitimate disciplic succession. Even in this case, the mantra’s secrecy is maintained by not chanting it loudly, given its esoteric nature and great potency. As described here, it was through the syllables of this mantra that Brahmā created the whole universe (1.30). Yet the highest achievement it yields is nothing mundane but Gopāla Himself (1.12).

          The Gopāla-mantra directly connects the Gauḍīyas to the Mādhva-sampradāya, and indirectly to other Vaiṣṇava-sampradāyas as well. The same mantra and instructions received by Brahmā are corroborated in the Gopāla-tāpanī Upaniṣad and Brahma-saṁhitā. In the Mahā-bhārata-tātparya-nirṇaya (32.27), Madhvācārya states: gopāla-mantraṁ bhajatāṁ phala-prada ekena rūpeṇa bhuvy adṛśyaḥ, “Although invisible, Lord Kṛṣṇa manifests His form in this world to those who worship Him with the Gopāla-mantra, for He rewards them accordingly.” In the Tantra-sāra-saṅgraha (4.39), he further asserts the same Kṛṣṇa-mantra composed of eighteen syllables: kṛṣṇo govic ca kāmetaḥ soddeśo ballavī-janaḥ, priyaś ca tādṛśaḥ svāhā-yukto’ṣṭādaśa-varṇakaḥ, padair aṅgāni samprīti-kāma-mokṣa-prado manuḥ, “The eighteen-syllable mantra consists of the word ‘kṛṣṇa’ together with the Kāma-bīja[8] and the words ‘govinda,’ ‘svāhā,’ and the synonym of ‘ballavī-jana-vallabha.’ Nyāsa is to be done on the bodily limbs by uttering these same words. This mantra fulfils all desires and gives love of God and liberation.” The present Mādhvas in Udupi can confirm that this is one of the mantras received in their disciplic succession. The same mantra imparted by Lord Kṛṣṇa to Brahmā has come down to the Gauḍīyas via the Mādhva-paramparā, and it is clear from the above verse that Madhvācārya himself propounded that Kṛṣṇa-prema is the goal to be attained by chanting it.

          One of the reasons the Nimbārkīs have great esteem for the Gopāla-tāpanī is that the same Gopāla-mantra is the prominent mantra in their sampradāya, having been transmitted by the Supreme Lord in the form of Haṁsa to the four Kumāra sages, who passed it on to Nārada Muni, who later initiated Nimbārkācārya. Indeed, Nimbārkīs closely follow the text by performing kara-nyāsa, aṅga-nyāsa, and by observing other details mentioned there. This mantra embodies their mode of worship, according to which the Supreme Lord’s form as a cowherd boy in Vraja is paramount, Śrī Rādhā is the Supreme Goddess, and the loving service rendered by the gopīs is the highest. Dedicated sādhakas are known to spend several hours a day doing Gopāla-mantra japa

          Similarly, the Gopāla-mantra also occupies a distinct place in the Viṣṇu-svāmi-sampradāya, with the exception that it is not given to the general public. Rather, only the ācārya of the sampradāya chants this mantra and imparts it only to the person who will succeed him in that post. From the perspective that the Puṣṭimārga is a branch of that sampradāya, as held by present-day Viṣṇu-svāmi-sampradāya members, this explains why Puṣṭimārga followers do not chant the Gopāla-mantra, unlike the abovementioned Vaiṣṇavas, although their worshipable Deity is also Gopāla.

          Furthermore, the Kāma-bīja (the syllable klīm) is not only an essential component in Vaiṣṇava mantras but is also present in the worship of various deities in other āgāmic traditions, as well as in Buddhist and Jain practices.

Theology

          Like other Vedic scriptures, the Gopāla-tāpanī starts with inquiries about the identity of the Supreme and gradually unfolds His nature, names, and qualities. Whatever is taught in a vague and indirect way in other Upaniṣads is here described in a straightforward and unambiguous way: Lord Kṛṣṇa is the Supreme Personality of Godhead (1.3, 2.51), the cause of all causes (2.22), and the sources of all avatāras (2.55), and loving devotional service to Him is the highest achievement of human life (1.13). Such devotional service is not only pursued in this lifetime but in the next too (1.14). He is the ultimate object of knowledge to be known through all Upaniṣads (1.1). This corroborates Vaiṣṇava realism, according to which God, the individual soul, and the scriptures are all absolutely real and eternal. The knowability of God by the jīvas is also factual and feasible, contrary to the belief that He cannot be described by words at all. Gopāla is the referent of the words of the Vedas, is expressed by the praṇava, and is the praṇava personified (2.66). His Deity in this world is non-different from Him and should be worshipped by all means. His svarūpa-śakti shares His same transcendental nature and is His personified energy (2.70-71). Such God realisation is attained by hearing the Vedic scriptures from Vaiṣṇavācāryas through a paramparā. Since Gopāla Himself is the Supreme Absolute Truth, knowledge of His svarūpa is the culmination of knowledge, which is searched for through upaniṣadic inquiries such as: kasmin nu bhagavo vijñāte sarvam idaṁ vijñātaṁ bhavatīti (Muṇḍaka Upaniṣad, 1.1.3), “O revered sage, what is that which upon being known, everything that exists is known?”

          The Supreme Lord’s form and nature, as well as His relationship with His devotees, are further confirmed by the etymological definition of His names given here: He is named ‘Govinda’ because He is well-known (viditaḥ) among the cows, in all planets, and in all Vedas (1.5), and He is named Gopāla because He accepts (ālāti) the gopas, those who drink (pibanti) His beverage-like beauty (go) with their eyes and tongues (2.50). At the time of the universal creation, Brahmā was born from Gopāla (1.23, 2.29), Who later also appeared to Him in that same form as a cowherd boy (1.28).

          Liberation is characterised by pure devotional service (1.14) and the attainment of Gopāla’s abode, which is of the same transcendental nature as Him (1.36-37, 52-53). The means to reach that abode is devotional service itself: meditation on His form and the Gopāla-mantra (1.6, 1.10). Mathurā is the Lord’s Own city, non-different from that in the spiritual world, and it rewards liberation to those who worship Him there (2.74). An apparent non-dualist section of the text (2.49-52) dedicated to meditation on the identity of oneself with Gopāla is reconciled by Śrī Vidyābhūṣaṇa as meant for those in the neophyte stage, which means those who are unable to fathom His ontological position as the Supreme Lord in comparison with that of the atomic individual soul. The principle is that a meditator acquires the qualities of the object of meditation and anyone becomes purified by the mere remembrance of Gopāla (2.7).

          In the beginning of his commentary, Śrī Vidyābhūṣaṇa establishes that one free from material desires is a person qualified (adhikārī) to study the Gopāla-tāpanī; Lord Kṛṣṇa is its topic (viṣaya); the relationship between the referent and the words describing it is the connection (sambandha); and to attain Kṛṣṇa is the purpose (prayojana).

Commentary

          Gauḍīya-vedāntācārya Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa took upon himself the task of commenting on key Vaiṣṇava works such as this one. Following his usual methodology, he consulted multiple commentaries while compiling his own. Although Viśveśvara Bhaṭṭa is the only name directly mentioned by him (1.31), Vidyābhūṣaṇa often paraphrases the words of Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī, Jīva Gosvāmī, and Raṇachoṛa-śaraṇa Devācārya, a Nimbarkī scholar (c. 17th century CE). It is not clear whether he had access to a copy of the commentary written by Viśvanātha Cakravartī, whose interpretations are substantially different, but he was most likely aware of it. It is also possible that he referred to other commentaries that may not be available today. Curiously, a manuscript of Jīva Gosvāmī’s Gopāla-tāpanī commentary preserved at the Vrindavan Research Institute, accession number 7698, has some notes written by Dayānidhi, who served as Vidyābhūṣaṇa’s scribe, which indicates that it must have been utilised by the latter. Even when borrowing the gist from other authors, Vidyābhūṣaṇa’s commentary is interspersed with his own input. Characteristically, his comments on both sections of the text start with some of his signature invocation verses.

          The Gopāla-tāpanī has its fair share of alternative readings, and as is the case with his other works, Vidyābhūṣaṇa was very particular about the readings he chose as well as the numbers of each text or paragraph. Although undated, a few references to the Siddhānta-ratnam indicate that this commentary was composed after his major Vedānta works had already been written, possibly between 1760 and 1780 CE. The number of extant manuscript copies and their locations are consistent with that of his other texts. On the other hand, not a single page of any other Upaniṣad-bhāṣya manuscript has been yet found, despite over a decade of extensive field search and contrary to the long-standing belief that Vidyābhūṣaṇa commented on the ten major Upaniṣads. In several of his commentaries, as well as in those by his associates such as Vedāntavāgīśa and Vṛndāvana Tarkālaṅkāra, references to the Govinda-bhāṣya, Siddhānta-ratnam, and other works are common, but there was never any allusion to a Daśopaniṣad-bhāṣya or even to one out of ten. This is odd, as such a commentary would have certainly been one of his most important contributions and sufficient copies of it would have been made as with most of his works. Nothing is conclusive yet, but many questions on the matter remain unanswered.



[1] The same thing is stated in the commentaries attributed to Prabodhānanda Sarasvatī, Jīva Gosvāmī, and Viśvanātha Cakravartī.

[2] His dates are controversial. While orthodox followers defend the view that Nimbārkācārya appeared over 5,000 years ago, others believe that he lived within a century or so before Śaṅkarācārya (8th century CE).

[3] He was the thirteenth successor of Nimbārkācārya. Unknown date.

[4] See Bhagīratha Jhā’s introduction to his own commentary on the Gopāla-tāpanī.

[5] He was the nineteenth successor of Nimbārkācārya. His dates are also disputed, propositions varying between the 12th and 14th century CE. He is the renowned author of Krama-dīpikā, whose verses and commentaries were quoted in the Hari-bhakti-vilāsa.

[6] Not to be mistaken for the famous 16th-century Advaita scholar. I wished to consult the manuscript of this text, but my queries to the Adyar Library remain unanswered.

[7] Unless otherwise specified, the references are to the first and second sections of the Gopāla-tāpanī. Only one or two instances are given, but more of them are found throughout the text on most topics discussed here.

[8] A bīja-mantra or seed mantra is a single syllable connected to the mantras of a particular deity. It encapsulates the essence of a multi-word mantra and is the sound form of its deity. The bīja-mantra of Lord Kṛṣṇa is named “Kāma-bīja,” for it is itself the desired object (kāma) and satisfies all desires (kāma).